Adult Education in the 1860s (Charlene Jackson)

I commented on Joe Morris' blog and Becky Moening's paper- 9/17/14

Charlene Y. Jackson

EDAC 631

History of Adult/Community Education

September 14, 2014

Adult Education from 1860 to 1869:

Exploring Historical Foundations

Introduction

Typically, when examining the history of adult education one uses the early twentieth century as a starting point. However, according to Houle (1992), “Long before that time, institutions designed to provide enlightenment for men and women had been established and the term adult education had occasionally been used, though only to describe limited endeavors (Houle, C.O., 1992, p. xii). According to Denton’s (1993) review of a 1964 article by Malcolm Knowles, “adult education has deep historical roots” (Denton, 1993, p. 192). In an effort to examine those “limited endeavors” and “historical roots,” this paper delves a little further into history by briefly reviewing the decade of 1860 to 1869, to gain an understanding of the precursors of adult education. This paper seeks to determine how the social context, educators, and institutions, during one of the most turbulent times in American history, influenced the future development of adult education, and how present-day adult educators can learn important lessons from that time period.

Social Context

The structure of the United States experienced major transformation during the 1860s.  The decade began with the enslavement and dehumanization of African and other indigenous people as the dominant institution creating wealth and economic prosperity for the country. By the end of the decade, the Civil War had ended, slavery was abolished, President Lincoln was assassinated, the 13^th, 14^th, and 15^th Amendments were created; and the Black Codes were installed (Bennett, 1988; Denton, 1993). In the midst of all the transition and tragedy, education, particularly, adult education was a key component in bringing the country to a place of stability.

During the 1860s, education meant different things to different people or groups. After the Civil War, millions of former slaves, labeled “freedmen,” were not only seeking land and material means, but also literacy (Denton, 1993, p. 36). Although prohibited from the same liberties in society and education as whites, due to the Black Codes and racism, the freedmen believed that education would prepare them to take full advantage of their freedom, and act as a means to gain personal respect, economic security, and racial progress (Roebuck, 1993, p .25).  Education for immigrants new to America held a different meaning. Immigrants were “accustomed to tradition-bound practices and assumptions concerning preparing the next generation for society, through family and community” (Handlin, 1982, p. 3). Their focus was on earning a living, so apprenticeship was common and the “distant rewards of schooling were unrealistic” (p. 4). For white Americans, the individualistic philosophy of the business enterprise, personal responsibility, and self-improvement were taught in schools and colleges (Long, 1991, pp. 101-102). Although, adult education was not clearly defined as a field of study during this time period, the education of adults was a central concern and active throughout society.  

In response to the complex needs of adults during this time period, several institutions, businesses, and educators rose to the challenge of educating adults. The Freedmen’s Bureau, an agency established by the federal government, provided elementary education to blacks and poor whites by coordinating and financing schools (Roebuck, 1993, p. 23). Industrial education became extremely popular as businesses found ways to incorporate foreign-born adults into the industrial economy (Long, 1991, p. 103). Peter Cooper, the first American of wealth to contribute to an adult educational institution, established the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art (Long, 1991, p. 109). The Cooper Union was tuition-free for mechanics, tradesmen, artisans, and even women interested in design. Booker T. Washington was also deeply involved in adult education. He pioneered programs based on the histories, philosophies, aims, and theories of the adult education movement (Denton, 1993, p. 192). Washington took on the challenge of “helping to build, an entire civilization from the first generation of freedmen” (p. 192).

Implications

Although adult education is typically discussed within the confines of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, it is important to go beyond the barriers of those periods and examine the historical roots of the movement. During the era of 1860 to 1869 in the United States, adult education was alive and well, albeit under different guises, yet with keen present-day similarities. The Freedmen, immigrants, southern whites, and northern whites all had different aims and reasons for pursuing education. This further informs present-day educators that, “what one wants to learn, what is offered, and the ways in which one learns are determined to a large extent by the nature of the society at a particular time” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 5). Indeed, the “values and beliefs of individuals and society shape what goals and purposes are important in adult education” (Merriam & Brockett, 2007, p. 3). Review of adult education forms and methods during the 1860s shows how diversity has influenced the current field of adult education, and how “the outcome of history is determined by actions of people, and the reconstruction of society is a never-ending and supreme task, demanding practical solutions” (Denton, 1993, p. 190). The 1860s were a time of reconstruction for the United States and adult education was essential in shaping the outcomes of that reconstruction. 

Areas	Summary
Social Background	At the beginning of the decade, slavery was a major institution. Racism, Black Codes, ethnic differences The Civil War ripped the country into two: the North and South, and millions of former slaves sought literacy and economic stability. Immigrants from all over the world entered the country in droves seeking employment. Some whites were interested in social reform, others in preserving their way of life.
Highlights	The country sought solutions to assist the millions of freedmen. Emancipation Proclamation 13th Amendment – Abolished slavery and servitude 14th Amendment – Citizenship and protection under the law 15th Amendment – Voting rights Americanization of immigrants Improvement of skills for industrial work
Influential Factors	Freedmen’s Bureau Apprenticeship programs Booker T. Washington Peter Cooper
Implications	Adult education is extremely diverse. Farmers, teachers, mechanics and other vocational schools were used to meet the various needs of the American population. The reconstruction of society is never-ending.

References

Bennett, Jr., L. (1988).  Before the mayflower: A history of black America. Chicago, IL: Johnson Publishing Company, Inc.

Denton, V. L. (1993). Booker T. Washington and the adult education movement. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.

Handlin, O. (1982). Education and the European immigrant: 1820 – 1920. In B. Weiss (Ed.), American education and the European immigrant: 1840 – 1940 (pp. 3–16). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Houle, C. O. (1992). The literature of adult education: A bibliographic essay. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Long, H. B. (1991). Early innovators in adult education. London & New York: Routledge.

Merriam, S. B. & Brockett, R. G. (2007). The profession and practice of adult education: An introduction. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A comprehensive guide. 3^rd ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Roebuck, J. B. & Murty, K. S. (1993). The history of black higher education in the United States.  Westport, CT: Praeger.