September 2014 Monthly Summary

(Charlene commented on Group 2, 4, 5 blogs)

September has been a very busy month for the members of Group Three. Time is flying by so quickly and it is hard to believe that we are at the halfway mark for the class. We have been communicating primarily through Blackboard using the Group Discussion Boards as well as the Blackboard IM feature.

Getting Started

Things were a little hectic at first, but we are slowly getting into a groove as far as working together and planning our work. As is typical with group projects, finding the best time for everyone to meet was a challenge. We were able to coordinate our schedules and link up quickly on IM to discuss our progress. We have reviewed the syllabus countless times and it is usually the focus of our chat- making sure everyone is clear on what is expected, what should be done, due dates, assignment details etc.

The Blog Experience

Blogging is new to all members of Group Three. We are amateurs, but we’re enjoying every step of the learning process. Becky created the blog and gave us the coolest name: “The Best EDAC 631 Group 3!” Charlene added the template and labels. We all plan to continue working on the blog to make it more user-friendly and esthetically pleasing. Our blog is a work-in-progress, but we are determined to live up to our name as the BEST!

History of Adult/Community Education Paper

Each member researched a different decade: Charlene researched the 1860’s, Jessica the 1950’s, and Becky the 1980’s. Each paper is extremely diverse and we are finding ways to link our information and apply it to the remaining projects. The History assignment was helpful because it provided a lot of background information for our next assignment: Leading Adult/Community Educator Paper.

Leading Adult/Community Educators Paper

We each listed educators that we were interested in and decided to focus on Malcolm Knowles and Booker T. Washington. Our History paper research will be helpful for this project because Jessica wrote about Malcolm Knowles’ influence during the 1950’s in her paper and Charlene wrote about Booker T. Washington’s influence during the 1860’s in her paper. We were able to begin the project with valuable information because of the previous assignment.

The good thing about working in this group is that everyone is eager to work and very interested in the educators we selected. We decided to split up the responsibilities as follows:

Charlene – Background and Profiles of each educator

Becky – Perspectives and Contributions of each educator

Jessica – Impact and Implications of each educator’s work

Each group member will have the opportunity to learn about each educator and provide summaries for the final paper. Jessica will work on the Introduction and Conclusion sections, Charlene will organize each of the summaries and make them more cohesive for the paper, and Becky will bring everything together into one paper.

Monthly Summaries

Since there are only three members in our group we were able to easily split up the responsibility of posting each month’s summary. Charlene will handle September, Jessica will complete October, and Becky will complete November’s summary.

Next Steps

We have not determined which programs we want to focus on for the Unique Adult/Community Education Programs project. We will spend next month brainstorming and researching programs of interest. We will continue to link up to discuss our ideas and to determine each group member’s responsibilities. The blog will be continually updated as well. We plan to add pictures and color too so it is a bit easier on the eyes for our readers.

Adult Education in the 1950s (Jessica Kirby)

Jennifer Warner and Joseph Morris 
EDAC 631

History of Adult/Community Education

Jessica Kirby

September 14, 2014

History of Adult Education in the 1950s

Social Background

            The 1940s were a tumultuous period in American history. In 1941 after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, American forces entered the Second World War. As men entered the armed forces and were sent to fight, women were asked to leave their traditional roles in the home and join the workforce. The increasing numbers of women in the American workforce were higher than they had been before. This terrible war came to a close in Europe and Asia in 1945 at which point thousands of American soldiers returned home.

            The end of World War II brought peace but not entirely. The Cold War with the Soviet Union brought an underlying tension to the 1950s and shaped much of the history of that decade. Despite the Cold War and a growing paranoia regarding the spread of communism, the 1950s were largely considered to be a decade of peace and growth. The economy expanded and the population of people living in the American suburbs grew substantially (USHistory.org). Many considered the 1950s to be an ideal decade, but behind the cozy, suburban appearance civil rights activists, women’s rights advocates, and anti-communists movements were working to further their own causes (History.com).

            A defining moment in American education occurred in the 1950s with the Brown v Board of Education decision by the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that separate educational facilities for black students were fundamentally unequal and therefore unconstitutional. This decision was a critical moment for the civil rights movement of course, but it also began a reshaping of American education that affected all American citizens (Pickren, 2004).  

Highlights

            Adult education research in the 1950s examined a variety of topics and populations but was widely concerned with the tangible problems facing the field (Chang). A review of the research in 1955 showcased a range of research projects that included, but was not limited to, studies in the categories of: areas of adult study, clientele of adult education, community development, and leadership and leadership training (Research Review, 1955). The field of adult education faced several questions and problems in the 1950s, and one of the most noted was defining the needs of adult learners and determining how educators could best meet those needs (Verner, 1956). According to Verner (1956), systematic examination of the methods used to teach adults was shortcoming of adult education research at the time. Adult education was growing and expanding but educators and researchers were unsure of the most effective way to reach their students. As they continued, they began to understand the need to use empirical data to support or refute their approaches.

            To gain a better understanding of the field of adult education in the 1950s, one must have first examined the history of adult education at the national level. In 1924, The National Education Association formed a separate department dedicated entirely to educating adults, the Department of Adult Education (Hiemstra, 2005). Closely following that development, in 1926 the American Association of Adult Education (A.A.A.E.) came into existence with the primary focus of spreading understanding of the adult education field. The A.A.A.E. contributed funds to research and publication and hosted national conferences. Both the National Education Association’s Department of Adult Education and the A.A.A.E. helped shape the landscape of the field of adult education in the 1950s.

            Early in the 1950s adult education began to expand as a field and focus its efforts on discovering scientifically sound ways to improve. In April of 1951, the Fund for Adult Education (F.A.E.) was created to provide financial support for research and publication in the field of adult education and aid in the training of adult educators (Hiemstra, 2005). The F.A.E. also funded several projects of the Adult Education Association of the USA (A.E.A- U.S.A.). The A.E.A.-U.S.A. was formed in 1951 as a merger of the National Education Association’s Department of Adult Education and the A.A.A.E and became a leading adult education organization. The F.A.E. and the A.E.A.-U.S.A. were formed early in the 1950s and together worked to promote research and growth in adult education that would shape the future of the field. 

Influential Factors

            One of the most noted adult educators of the 1950s was Malcom Knowles. Knowles may be best known for his concept of andragogy, and he also wrote on ideas such as eliminating the hierarchy between the educator and the student and self-directed learning (Rachal, 2014). Knowles published several research articles and books throughout his career and promoted the idea that adult education should be learner based and less focused on the teacher as a provider of information. Knowles’ work spanned several decades, and his contributions to the field of adult education have provided a new perspective for adult educators to explore.

            Another well-known adult educator of the 1950s was Cyril Houle. Houle worked for several years to understand the adult learner, and eventually developed a classification system to categorize them (Hiemstra, 2003). Houle was a proponent of self-directed learning, and his research contributed much to the development of this concept. He helped adult educators gain a better understanding of how adults learn, which led to new educational strategies and further research.

            Adult education in the 1950s was largely based in progressivism, a concept that influenced the work of both Knowles and Houle (Merriam, 2007). Progressivism was comprised of several basic tenets. One of the primary points of focus for progressivism was the adult as a learner and the fact that each individual’s needs influenced his/her educational experience. Progressivism also focused on the need for empirical approaches to instruction and the use of experiential learning. Progressive thought also saw adult education as a means to create social action (Merriam, 2007). Knowles and Houle each helped further the field of adult education. Their contributions to the understanding of the adult learner and instructional concepts such as self-directed learning, provided the foundation from which educators and researchers could begin to build the future of adult education.  

Implications

            The field of adult education has been growing and evolving for centuries, and as society continues to change, so does adult education. What defines adult education has been widely debated as have the instructional strategies used to teach adult learners. In the 1950s, American society changed as soldiers returned home from WWII and women moved back into the home from the workforce. Education as a whole was reshaped by the Brown v Board of Education decision from the U.S. Supreme Court, and the formation of the F.A.E. and A.E.A.-U.S.A. propelled the field of adult education forward.

            Several philosophical perspectives and theories have shaped the history of adult education, primarily progressivism in the 1950s, and several individuals have contributed to adult education’s body of knowledge. Two well-known adult educators from the 1950s, Malcom Knowles and Cyril Houle, were each critical to the advancement of adult education. Both educators investigated the traditional role of the educator and student and argued that adult education should be learner-centered.

            The 1950s were a decade of growth and development for the field of adult education. The F.A.E. provided much needed research funding and the A.E.A.-U.S.A. produced research that directed the future of adult education. The movements and advances in understanding that occurred in the 1950s allowed adult education to grow. Merriam (2001) reminds educators that concepts such as andragogy and self-directed learning have continued to shape the practice of adult education. Though adult educators may not have all of the answers regarding the adult as a learner, the ideas from the past have allowed them to move forward.

Table 1. Summary of the History of Adult/Community Education

Social Background	-End of WWII and beginning of Cold War -Beginning of Civil Rights Movement, Women’s Rights -Anti-communism paranoia -Brown v Board decision in 1954
Highlights	-Formation of F.A.E. and A.E.A.-U.S.A. -Increased focus on empirical research
Influential Factors	-Malcom Knowles -Cyril Houle -Progressivism
Implications	-Knowles’ andragogy -Houle’s self-directed learning -Use of scientific research methodology in adult education research

References

Chang, B. Shift of Adult Education Research.

Hiemstra, R. (2003). More Than Three Decades of Self-Directed Learning: From Whence Have We Come? Adult Learning. 14(4), 5-8.

Hiemstra, R. (2005). An annotated Chronology of Landmarks in the history and development of adult education with particular reference to the U.S.A. Retrieved September 14, 2014 from www-distance.syr.edu/historychron.htm

History.com Staff (2010). The 1950s. http://www.history.com/topics/1950s

Merriam, S.S. (2001). Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning: Pillars of Adult Learning Theory In New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education.

Merriam, S.B., Brockett, R.G. (2007). The Profession and Practice of Adult Education: An Introduction. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Pickren, W. (September 2004). Fifty Years On: Brown v. Board of Education and American Psychology, 1954–2004. American Psychologist, 59(6), 493-494.

Rachal, J. (2014). Review of the Book Malcolm Shepherd Knowles: A history of his thought, by J Rachal. Adult Education Quarterly, 64(1), 80-84.

Research Review (1955). Adult Education.

The 1950s: Happy Days. Retrieved from: http://www.ushistory.org/us/53.asp

Verner, C. (1956). Research-Based publications, 1955*. Adult Education, 6, 226-233. 

Adult Education in the 1860s (Charlene Jackson)

I commented on Joe Morris' blog and Becky Moening's paper- 9/17/14

Charlene Y. Jackson

EDAC 631

History of Adult/Community Education

September 14, 2014

Adult Education from 1860 to 1869:

Exploring Historical Foundations

Introduction

Typically, when examining the history of adult education one uses the early twentieth century as a starting point. However, according to Houle (1992), “Long before that time, institutions designed to provide enlightenment for men and women had been established and the term adult education had occasionally been used, though only to describe limited endeavors (Houle, C.O., 1992, p. xii). According to Denton’s (1993) review of a 1964 article by Malcolm Knowles, “adult education has deep historical roots” (Denton, 1993, p. 192). In an effort to examine those “limited endeavors” and “historical roots,” this paper delves a little further into history by briefly reviewing the decade of 1860 to 1869, to gain an understanding of the precursors of adult education. This paper seeks to determine how the social context, educators, and institutions, during one of the most turbulent times in American history, influenced the future development of adult education, and how present-day adult educators can learn important lessons from that time period.

Social Context

The structure of the United States experienced major transformation during the 1860s.  The decade began with the enslavement and dehumanization of African and other indigenous people as the dominant institution creating wealth and economic prosperity for the country. By the end of the decade, the Civil War had ended, slavery was abolished, President Lincoln was assassinated, the 13^th, 14^th, and 15^th Amendments were created; and the Black Codes were installed (Bennett, 1988; Denton, 1993). In the midst of all the transition and tragedy, education, particularly, adult education was a key component in bringing the country to a place of stability.

During the 1860s, education meant different things to different people or groups. After the Civil War, millions of former slaves, labeled “freedmen,” were not only seeking land and material means, but also literacy (Denton, 1993, p. 36). Although prohibited from the same liberties in society and education as whites, due to the Black Codes and racism, the freedmen believed that education would prepare them to take full advantage of their freedom, and act as a means to gain personal respect, economic security, and racial progress (Roebuck, 1993, p .25).  Education for immigrants new to America held a different meaning. Immigrants were “accustomed to tradition-bound practices and assumptions concerning preparing the next generation for society, through family and community” (Handlin, 1982, p. 3). Their focus was on earning a living, so apprenticeship was common and the “distant rewards of schooling were unrealistic” (p. 4). For white Americans, the individualistic philosophy of the business enterprise, personal responsibility, and self-improvement were taught in schools and colleges (Long, 1991, pp. 101-102). Although, adult education was not clearly defined as a field of study during this time period, the education of adults was a central concern and active throughout society.  

In response to the complex needs of adults during this time period, several institutions, businesses, and educators rose to the challenge of educating adults. The Freedmen’s Bureau, an agency established by the federal government, provided elementary education to blacks and poor whites by coordinating and financing schools (Roebuck, 1993, p. 23). Industrial education became extremely popular as businesses found ways to incorporate foreign-born adults into the industrial economy (Long, 1991, p. 103). Peter Cooper, the first American of wealth to contribute to an adult educational institution, established the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art (Long, 1991, p. 109). The Cooper Union was tuition-free for mechanics, tradesmen, artisans, and even women interested in design. Booker T. Washington was also deeply involved in adult education. He pioneered programs based on the histories, philosophies, aims, and theories of the adult education movement (Denton, 1993, p. 192). Washington took on the challenge of “helping to build, an entire civilization from the first generation of freedmen” (p. 192).

Implications

Although adult education is typically discussed within the confines of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, it is important to go beyond the barriers of those periods and examine the historical roots of the movement. During the era of 1860 to 1869 in the United States, adult education was alive and well, albeit under different guises, yet with keen present-day similarities. The Freedmen, immigrants, southern whites, and northern whites all had different aims and reasons for pursuing education. This further informs present-day educators that, “what one wants to learn, what is offered, and the ways in which one learns are determined to a large extent by the nature of the society at a particular time” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 5). Indeed, the “values and beliefs of individuals and society shape what goals and purposes are important in adult education” (Merriam & Brockett, 2007, p. 3). Review of adult education forms and methods during the 1860s shows how diversity has influenced the current field of adult education, and how “the outcome of history is determined by actions of people, and the reconstruction of society is a never-ending and supreme task, demanding practical solutions” (Denton, 1993, p. 190). The 1860s were a time of reconstruction for the United States and adult education was essential in shaping the outcomes of that reconstruction. 

Areas	Summary
Social Background	At the beginning of the decade, slavery was a major institution. Racism, Black Codes, ethnic differences The Civil War ripped the country into two: the North and South, and millions of former slaves sought literacy and economic stability. Immigrants from all over the world entered the country in droves seeking employment. Some whites were interested in social reform, others in preserving their way of life.
Highlights	The country sought solutions to assist the millions of freedmen. Emancipation Proclamation 13th Amendment – Abolished slavery and servitude 14th Amendment – Citizenship and protection under the law 15th Amendment – Voting rights Americanization of immigrants Improvement of skills for industrial work
Influential Factors	Freedmen’s Bureau Apprenticeship programs Booker T. Washington Peter Cooper
Implications	Adult education is extremely diverse. Farmers, teachers, mechanics and other vocational schools were used to meet the various needs of the American population. The reconstruction of society is never-ending.

References

Bennett, Jr., L. (1988).  Before the mayflower: A history of black America. Chicago, IL: Johnson Publishing Company, Inc.

Denton, V. L. (1993). Booker T. Washington and the adult education movement. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.

Handlin, O. (1982). Education and the European immigrant: 1820 – 1920. In B. Weiss (Ed.), American education and the European immigrant: 1840 – 1940 (pp. 3–16). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Houle, C. O. (1992). The literature of adult education: A bibliographic essay. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Long, H. B. (1991). Early innovators in adult education. London & New York: Routledge.

Merriam, S. B. & Brockett, R. G. (2007). The profession and practice of adult education: An introduction. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A comprehensive guide. 3^rd ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Roebuck, J. B. & Murty, K. S. (1993). The history of black higher education in the United States.  Westport, CT: Praeger.

Adult Education in the 1980s (Becky Moening)

We were told to post our papers, so I'm attaching mine here. I will also start a discussion in our group 3 link.
I guess I will just copy and paste it into here...I cannot find the attachment spot in here. If someone else finds it, please help me open my eyes!

Adult Education in the 1980’s

Introduction:

                The 1980’s in the United States proved to be a decade of change. The 70’s brought us recreational drugs while the 80’s saw those same drugs turn to addictive and deadly substances. First Lady Nancy Reagan started the “Just Say No” campaign that is still used today (ushistory.org). The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) became widely known as a killer, not just in the U.S. but all over the world. We also saw changes in entertainment.  The expanded role of cable television revolutionized many standard homes in the U.S. Throughout the 1980’s, not only did more families have cable television but VCR’s (video recorders) became popular and families could now record their favorite shows to watch later. The evolution of the home with electronics did not stop with the television. Apple’s first personal computer became affordable in the 80’s leading to many homes with the use of this technology (Kupczynski & Hooper).  With all of these changes in electronics and in health and wellness, the changes seemingly also spilled over into adult education.

Highlights:

There were many changes in the 1980’s in the United States in different facets of society. This includes many modifications in the area of adult education.  Here we will talk about seven of these particular changes.

1.) Literacy – The crisis in literacy had become a main focus of the Reagan presidency. The 1980’s saw illiteracy as a disability. Illiteracy was associated with poverty and adults who could not read were viewed as a loss of valuable resources.  Immigrants, elderly and Native Americans were just a few of the groups who needed special attention in this area (Rose). It was no longer acceptable to be illiterate. It was now a threat to society. Adult education and education in general would need to focus on literacy.

2.) New Writing Processes – The 1980’s saw new writing processes brought to life by Flower and Hayes, only to be criticized by many. Flower and Hayes recognized the problem solving process that needed to be included when writing in order for someone to be a successful writer. There was also the literacy crisis that mirrored the struggles with writing. Bereiter and Scardamalia came around in 1987 with an alternative writing process that took the best of Flower and Hayes and improved on it (Gillespie). This allows adults to learn methods of writing while working toward literacy.

3.) Personal Computers – Apple’s first personal computer came about in the 1970’s. However, it wasn’t until the 1980’s that this personal computer became affordable to a typical American family (Kupcqynski and Hooper). The welcoming of a personal computer into the home changed the way people communicated, kept records, and researched data. As time passed, more and more research materials began appearing on the internet, allowing Americans to research from their homes without the use of a hardback book. This allowed for information to be gained in a more convenient way and the shift to the digital age had begun.

4.) Focus on Teaching – Before the 1980’s, the focus on teaching had been education. In the 1980’s, the focus on teaching turned to learning (Knowles). Education was no longer the goal; learning was the goal. It was not enough to just teach material. It was important to show how (and what) adults were learning. The output was now more important than the input.

5.) Women’s and Workers’ Education – The 1980’s saw adult education expand to women as well as workers (Merriam and Brockett, p. 58). On the job training became fundamental to a company’s growth. Women were becoming more prevalent in society and in the world of adult education.

6. Added “Continuing” – Adult education had been the descriptor leading up to the 1980’s. At this time, the term continuing education started being used (Merriam and Brockett, p. 11). Many people thought adult education and continuing education were synonyms. However, because of slight differences, the U.S. adopted the new term of adult and continuing education which is still used in many places today.

7. Retraining – The U.S. is constantly battling in the global market and as the working situation changes, so must the workers. Adults must continuously be adapting to fit the needs in the present day’s job market. The 1980’s saw an increase in retraining of adult workers to help the U.S. compete in the ever-changing global market (Merriam and Brockett, . 9).

Influential Factors:

                All changes happen for a reason. The 1980’s had several factors that caused changes in adult education. Apps talked about six of these influences that led to changes in adult education in the 1980’s.

1. Increase in Median Age of Population – The population of the U.S. was getting older and therefore more must be expected from the growing number of adults. The global market changes and therefore adults need to be retrained to fit the current needs.

2. Inflation – The 1980’s saw the consumer price index rise from 82.4 (annual for 1980) to 124 (annual for 1989) (Quantitative Reasoning, p. 40). This is a difference of 41.6 and means goods that would have cost $82.40 in 1980 would then have cost $124 in 1989, $41.60 more for the same goods. This put a burden on many American families.

3. Consumerism – The 1980’s found many more Americans become materialistic. Students now wanted to attend college simply to make a lot of money in order to buy more things (Consumerism).

4. Status of women – Women were making gains in the working world throughout the 1980’s. It was becoming common to see women putting forth effort in the field of education in similar fashions as men.

5. Political conservatism – Reagan was the president and Americans were settled in tradition. That was not only political, but educational as well. Liberal tradition education was promoted by Adler and Bloom in the 1980’s. Education should include reading classics (Merriam and Brockett, p. 34)!

6. Public Disenchantment with Current State of Education – A Nation at Risk was published in 1983 and caused a tremendous amount of educational reform at the local, state and federal levels. The public believed the U.S. was failing the children due to the lacking of statistical evidence that the U.S. was keeping up with global competitors. This publication made 38 recommendations over 5 categories. The public dissatisfaction with the education of the children carried over into adult and continuing education.

Implications:

                Any time there is conflict, change occurs and a new norm is set. The 1980’s saw conflict in society and education that caused modifications to society and new legislation to be passed. Also, the 1980’s saw the new digital age emerge.

1.) The Adult Education Act was revised in the 1980’s (Rose). This act identified special groups that needed attention such as immigrants, the elderly and Native Americans, to name a few. It also provided an alternative track to high school completion. The focus of grade level completion was changed to a competency-based approach that is continuing to grow in adult education today. The Adult Education Act also called for greater community input into programming. The community members were being asked to take an active role in adult education as volunteers in the private sector.

2. Literacy issues were a main focal point in the 1980’s. The realization of the concerns from the 1980’s led to National Literacy Act of 1991 (Rose). This act called for national and state agencies to create programs to educate illiterate Americans and end the literacy crisis that was the center of attention in the 1980’s.

3. The mainstreaming of the personal computer gave rise to the digital age. Average Americans were now completing tasks on their personal computer as never before. Research materials were starting to appear on the internet and accessing information was becoming more convenient.

Conclusion:

                The 1980’s were a decade of change. Society saw changes in perspective of drugs, home entertainment and education. These changes provided the American people with new and exciting opportunities. The 1980’s were the home to the literacy crisis which drove adult education legislation (Rose). Many of the adult educational issues of the 1980’s are still present in the United States today.

Table 1:

Areas	Summary
Social Background	1. drugs went from recreational to deadly 2. entertainment in the home upgraded with cable, VCR and home computer
Highlights	1. Literacy crisis 2. New writing processes/models to help with literacy 3. Personal computers in the home of the average American 4. Change in the focus of teaching from education to learning 5. Women’s and workers’ education increased 6. Adult and Continuing Education – name change 7. Retraining adult workers to better serve the U.S. in the global market
Influential Factors	1. Increase in median age of population 2. Inflation 3. Consumerism 4. Status of women 5. Political conservatism 6. Public disenchantment with current state of education
Implications	1. Adult Education Act revised in the 1980’s 2. National Literacy Act (1991) came out of the concerns of the 1980’s 3. Digital Age was born with the introduction of the personal computer into the American family homes

Sources:

Apps, Jerold W. (June 30, 1980). Lifelong Learning: The Adult Years. V3 n10 p. 4-7.

Consumerism. (2014).  Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerism.

Gillespie, Marilyn K. (2005). Research in Writing: Implications for Adult Literacy Education. V2 c3.

                Retrieved from: www.ncsall.net.

Knowles, Malcolm S. (1980). The Modern Practice of Adult Education. Cambridge. Retrieved from:

                www.cumc.columbia.edu.

Kupcqynski, L. & Hooper, B. The Internet as a Path to Adult Learning. Johns Hopkins: School of

                Education. Retrieved from: www.education.jhu.edu.

Life in the 1980’s. Retrieved from: www.ushistory.org/us/59d.asp

McMahon. (2014). Historical CPI-U Data from 1976 to April, 2014. Quantitative Reasoning: Math 123. Ivy

                Tech Community College.

Merriam, S. & Brockett, R. (2007). The Profession and Practice of Adult Education: An Introduction. San

                Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at Risk. Washington, DC.

Rose, Amy D.  (1994). Adult Education as Federal Policy: The Search for a Literacy Agenda. PAACE Journal

                of Lifelong Learning, Vol. 3, p. 4-13. Retrieved from: www.iup.edu.