Leading Adult Educators

Charlene commented on the Leading Adult Educator Papers of Groups 1 & 2
Becky commented on the papers of groups 1 and 5

Group Roles:

Charlene - Background and Profile of each educator, and proofread final paper.

Jessica - Introduction, Conclusion, Impact and Implication of each educator, and proofread final paper.

Becky - Perspectives and Contributions of each educator and compiled final paper and submitted final  paper.

Leading Adult Educators

Charlene Jackson

Jessica Kirby

Becky Moening

EDAC 631

October 5, 2014

Introduction:

                “Nothing ever comes to me, that is worth having, except as the result of hard work.” Booker T. Washington’s words should hold special meaning for those studying the field of adult education. The growth and expansion in this field is the result of decades of persistent effort and innovation. To truly understand how the field of adult education has evolved over time, one must first examine the contributions of individual adult educators and consider how those contributions paved the way for growth. Two such adult educators are Booker T. Washington and Malcolm Knowles. Each of these men have made significant contributions to the field of adult education and have earned individual study and recognition. Today’s adult educators should seek a better understanding of how the ideas and strategies of these prolific educators came about and how they have impacted adult education.

Background and Profile:

Booker T. Washington was born into slavery on a Virginia plantation in 1856. When slavery was abolished, Washington had a chance to pursue the education he longed for. In spite of the reign of the Ku Klux Klan (a terrorizing group of white men that used brutal, violent force to govern the activities of African Americans), black codes (restrictive laws that limited the freedom and rights of African Americans), the culture of lynching African Americans, and having limited resources, Washington was able to enter Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute at sixteen years of age (Washington, 1995).  After graduating with honors in 1875, Washington started his career as a teacher in Malden, West Virginia, and taught for two years. As the only instructor for the only public colored school in Malden, Washington not only taught his students the regular subjects of teaching, but also proper hygiene (Washington, 1995). Washington soon started a night school for adults who worked during the day, taught two Sunday schools, started a small reading room, a debate society, and mentored young men and women to prepare them for college. Washington described this time as the happiest period in his life because he felt he was helping people achieve a better life (Washington, 1995).

While attending school in Washington, D.C., Washington noticed that many of his classmates did not have to work to pay for their education, but had their school expenses paid for by someone else, and seemed to be less self-dependent (Washington, 1995). He also noticed that when these students left school, they had mere book education, but were not educated on the conditions they would meet once they went home (Washington, 1995). It also bothered him that many colored people “depended on the Government for every conceivable thing” and did not know how to create positions for themselves. These were some of Washington’s early concerns about the education colored people were receiving at the time.

Washington began his “life-work” when he was offered a position to take charge of starting a normal school for the colored people of Tuskegee, Alabama (Washington, 1995). Washington opened the school in 1881 and it later became known as Tuskegee Institute. Washington was determined to not only have the students build the school themselves, but to teach them the beauty and dignity in labor and to learn to love work for its own sake (Washington, 1995).   Tuskegee students laid the foundation for the school, erected the buildings, and even built the furnishings (Washington, 1995). Washington revolutionized adult education and forever changed it from being about book education to “life” education.

Our group chose to investigate Booker T. Washington because he pioneered programs based on the histories, philosophies, aims, and theories of the adult education movement (Denton, 1993). Washington took on the challenge of “helping to build, an entire civilization from the first generation of freedmen” (Denton, 1993).  In the midst of the most hostile environments, Washington was able to leave an indelible mark on adult education.

Malcolm S. Knowles was born in 1913 in Montana. His family later moved to Florida where he graduated from Palm Beach High School in 1930.  He attended Harvard University and graduated in 1934. He earned his Master’s at the University of Chicago in 1949 and his Ph.D. in 1960.  Knowles worked as the founding executive secretary of the Adult Education Association, which later became the American Association for Adult and Continuing Education. He also worked as the director of Adult Education at the Boston YMCA, director of training for the National Youth Administration of Massachusetts, and served as a professor at Boston University, North Carolina State University, and University of Arkansas (Malcolm Shepherd Knowles, 1998).

Knowles is known as the “Father of Adult Education” and the “Archbishop of Andragogy” (Long & Boshier, 1998). He lived during major events in the United States including the Great Depression, World War II, and the Civil Rights Movement. He published nineteen books and more than 200 articles on adult education. He is credited with “altering the paradigm of adult education” (Long & Boshier, 1998). Knowles believed that adults brought valuable experience to the classroom and should be taught differently than children. He later refined his theory and came to believe that both children and adults are natural self-directed learners and that the unique characteristics of adult learners develop as they mature (Henschke, 1997).

Our group chose to research Malcolm Knowles because he was so instrumental in the development of adult education. As mentioned by Henschke (1997), “To develop a clear understanding of adult education, you must examine the history of those persons who contributed to adult education.” In order to discuss adult education, Malcolm Knowles must be included in the conversation. He played a major role in the adult education movement for decades. 

Perspectives:

                Booker T. Washington valued education starting at a young age. He traveled, alone, more than 500 miles from his hometown of Malden, West Virginia to attend the school of Hampton. The school of Hampton was opened to help educate newly freed slaves after the Civil War. It was here Washington got his start on the educational trail. Washington started at Hampton in fall of 1872 where he worked while attending school to pay for his boarding. He was one of the youngest students at 16 years old. Many students there were in their 40's. Washington saw the need for educating newly freed blacks in the south and he believed education should be more than just teaching someone to read and write (Thornbrough, 1969).

                Upon graduating from Hampton, Washington continued working in the education field. He was offered the challenge of creating a black school in Tuskegee, Alabama. This area was in economic turmoil and many blacks there were uneducated and unable to provide a living for themselves or their families. Washington wanted to make this new school part of the community so the community members felt like it was theirs (Graham, 1961). Washington took out a personal loan to help build the school to start the Tuskegee School which opened in 1881. Washington's goals for this school were simple. He wanted to provide instruction to the masses and inspire hope and courage for the people of the Tuskegee region (Thornbrough, 1969).

                Washington had three basic principles concerning education. 1 - Education must meet conditions that exist now, 2 - Education should provide students with enough skill to make a living, and 3 - Education must show that labor is dignified and beautiful (Thornbrough, 1969). This third basic principle was a message to the Whites that the Black community could provide hard workers equal to that of the White community (Bieze, 2012).

                The purpose of the Tuskegee school was to give Negros in the South a way to improve their economic conditions. Washington saw adult education as a way for people to improve their way of life and he worked with the community to do that. He offered the Tuskegee Negro Conference and innovative extension programs to help community members with farming and other agricultural type situations. Many blacks in the south were not familiar with the day-to-day farming operations and these community members attended Washington's programs to improve their livelihood (Denton, 1993).

                Malcolm Knowles perspectives on adult education came from his experience as an educator. His work grew out of his dissertation at the University of Chicago and stressed the development of a coordinated adult education movement (Merriam, 2007). Knowles’ early thoughts focused on student learning. He found students learn better when they assess their own needs, define their own goals, are actively involved in setting objectives, using their own experiences for other's learning, and organizing learning experiences around their life tasks or problems (Knowles, 1989).

                However, Knowles continued to research the topic of adult education and found theories had changed. Education had turned from learning to promotion. Adult students were less worried about being actively involved in learning and were more worried about earning the grade and promoting to the next class. Education was no longer motivated intrinsically, but was extrinsic in terms of earning the passing grade or earning the approval of the teacher/parents (Knowles, 1989).

                The topic of mandatory continuing education is often discussed in the area of adult education. Knowles believes all adult education should be voluntary but understands why certain professions aim to keep their practitioners up to date on current practices. By making continuing education voluntary, more people would feel as if they are in charge of their learning instead of being forced to learn.

                Knowles also talks about the principle of adult education in relation to institutions. Adult education generally thrives out of a crisis as that is when needs are most clearly seen. The adult education programs that survive the longest tend to have solid ties to other institutions/programs. This linkage tends to promote survival of the adult education institution/program.

Contributions:

Booker T. Washington

·    Started the Tuskegee School in 1881 serving the area of Tuskegee, Alabama. This school immediately was known for its' adult education programs and meeting the needs of the community through the programs (Denton, 1993).

·    Used widespread spoken and written word to link black and whites together on the issue of race and education (Denton, 1993).

·    Appeared as an activist within the Black community. He raised funds, secured loans and jobs and used his name to assist Black individuals and causes (Bieze, 2012).

·    Purchased the land (personally) and helped to build the Tuskegee School, with the help of students (Washington, 1902).

Malcolm Knowles

·    Broadening and deepening of our understanding of the nature of the adult education movement (Knowles1989)

·    Development and revolution of the Andragogical Model

-    treating students like dignified, competent human beings

-    providing a climate and environment more suitable to adults and less like a traditional classroom setting

-    offering classes based on expressed needs of students

-    actively involve students in their own learning

-    have students share their strengths in order to work together and use each other as resources

·    Leader in the progressive movement of adult education (Merriam)

·    Leader in self-directed learning

Impact and Implications:

As an educator and leader, Booker T. Washington contributed much to the field of adult education. His Tuskegee Institute in Alabama was a model institution of vocational learning, and from there, he expanded his efforts into adult and extension education (Frantz, 1997). Washington saw a need for education that went beyond the classroom walls and met adults in their places of work and homes. He realized that by taking information to adults, he could also teach them the value of learning and education (Gyant, 1988). His understanding of the need for education that reached out to a working, adult population helped shape a large portion of today’s adult education. The strategies Booker T. Washington used to educate a new group of individuals had a tremendous impact on the way educators today approach extension and vocational education.    

                Malcolm Knowles was one of the most noted leaders in the field of adult education throughout the mid-late 1900s, and his contributions to the field must be acknowledged (Rachal, 2014). His theories on the adult learner, informal adult education, and andragogy were groundbreaking. Knowles’ idea of andragogy essentially explained that he believed adults, unlike children, should be aided in learning, not taught (Knowles, 1970). This novel approach and way of thinking sparked the creation of new courses and programs designed to put the learner more at the center of education. Malcolm Knowles contributed much to the field of adult education, and his theories and methods helped advance the practices of adult educators.

                Washington’s commitment to expanding his student population to include working adults has become a hallmark characteristic of adult education. His efforts to teach the value of education and to take relevant information to working adults serve as examples to adult educators today. Vocational schools and apprentice programs where the student learns a specific set of skills are examples of Washington’s educational model. Malcolm Knowles’ pioneer thinking and approaches to helping adults learn have allowed adult education to grow. Courses that are student driven and that put the learner at the center of the curriculum are examples of how his contributions to this field have influenced adult education today.

Conclusion:

The work of both Booker T. Washington and Malcolm Knowles had a significant impact on the field of adult education. Washington’s Tuskegee Institute served as a leader for vocational, adult education (Frantz, 1997), an example that stands to this day. Knowles’ theory on adult learning and andragogy, though much debated, provided a new perspective on adult education (Knowles, 1970). His ideas sparked new research in adult education theories and strategies, and his numerous publications and scholarly works are referenced to this day (Rachal, 2014). As adult education continues to expand and evolve, educators should continue to gain a better understanding of the field’s history, including the histories of individuals like Washington and Knowles. Their efforts and contributions have helped direct adult education to its current position.

Table 1. Summary of Leading Adult Educators

	Booker T. Washington	Malcolm Knowles
Time Period	1876 – 1915	1946 - 1970
Background	-Born into slavery -Worked during the Reconstruction period of the United States -Revolutionized adult education for African Americans -Taught students the value and importance of labor and how to create their own positions -Believed in addressing real-life problems instead of filling students with book education	-Born during the Great Depression -Contributed to the field of adult education during the Civil Rights Movement -Changed the paradigm of adult education -Popularized the term “Andragogy” in America -Believed that adults brought their experience into the classroom -Refined his theory to include the maturity of children into adults.
Profile	-Entered college at sixteen years old -Graduated from Hampton Institute with Honors -Established Tuskegee Institute as well as several night schools	-Attended Harvard University and University of Chicago -Founding executive at the Adult Education Association which became the American Associate for Adult and Continuing Education -Taught at Boston University, North Carolina State University, and University of Arkansas -Held positions as director of Adult Education at the Boston YMCA and director of training for the National Youth Administration of Massachusetts
Perspectives	-Meet the needs of now -Have community feel a part of the education	-Education is extrinsically motivated -Adult education programs survive longer when tied to another institution
Contributions	-Developed the Tuskegee School -Used spoken and written word to link blacks and whites together on issues of race and education	-Andragogical Model -Leader in progressive movement and self-directed learning
Impact	-Examples of vocational education -Pioneer of extension education -Championed adult education	-Solidifying theory of andragogy -Many publications and scholarly contributions -Learner-centered curriculum
Implications	-Learn how to take education to those who need it -Make education mean something to learners	-Adult educators should facilitate learning rather than teach material -Adult learners should form center of curriculum

References:

Bieze, M. & Gasman, M. (2012). Booker T. Washington: Rediscovered. The Johns Hopkins

                University Press. Baltimore.

Denton, V. L. (1993). Booker T. Washington and the adult education movement. Gainesville, FL:

                University Press of Florida.

Frantz, N. (1997). The contributions of Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois in the development of vocational education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 34(4), 87-91.

Graham, Shirley. (1961). Booker T. Washington: Educator of Hand, Head, and Heart. Julian

                Messner, Inc. New York.

Gyant, L. (1988). Contributors to adult education: Booker T. Washington, George Washington Carver, Alain L. Locke, and Ambrose Caliver. Journal of Black Studies, 19(1), 97-110.

Henschke, J. (1997). In memoriam: Malcolm S. Knowles. Adult Learning, 9(2), 2

Long, H. B., & Boshier, R. (1998). A tribute to Malcolm S. Knowles. Adult Education

                Quarterly, 48(2), 63.

Knowles, Malcolm S. (1989). The Making of an Adult Educator. Jossey-Bass Publishers. San

                Francisco.

Knowles, Malcolm S. (1970). The Modern Practice of Adult Education (Vol. 41). New York: New York Association Press.

Knowles, Malcolm S. (1998). Training & Development, 52(2), 11.

Merriam, S. & Brockett, R. (2007). The Profession and Practice of Adult Education: An

                Introduction. Jossey-Bass.

Rachal, J. R. (2014). Book Review: Malcolm Shepherd Knowles: A History of His Thought. Adult Education Quarterly, 64(1), 80-84.

Thornbrough, Emma L. (1969). Booker T. Washington. Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs.

Washington, Booker T.  "The Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute," The World To-day,

                August 1902, 1727-31.

Washington, Booker T. (1995). Up from slavery. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc.