Charlene commented on the Leading Adult Educator Papers of Groups 1 & 2
Becky commented on the papers of groups 1 and 5
Group Roles:
Charlene - Background and Profile of each educator, and proofread final paper.
Jessica - Introduction, Conclusion, Impact and Implication of each educator, and proofread final paper.
Becky - Perspectives and Contributions of each educator and compiled final paper and submitted final paper.
Leading Adult Educators
Charlene Jackson
Jessica Kirby
Becky Moening
EDAC 631
October 5, 2014
Introduction:
“Nothing
ever comes to me, that is worth having, except as the result of hard work.”
Booker T. Washington’s words should hold special meaning for those studying the
field of adult education. The growth and expansion in this field is the result
of decades of persistent effort and innovation. To truly understand how the
field of adult education has evolved over time, one must first examine the
contributions of individual adult educators and consider how those
contributions paved the way for growth. Two such adult educators are Booker T.
Washington and Malcolm Knowles. Each of these men have made significant
contributions to the field of adult education and have earned individual study
and recognition. Today’s adult educators should seek a better understanding of
how the ideas and strategies of these prolific educators came about and how
they have impacted adult education.
Background
and Profile:
Booker T. Washington was
born into slavery on a Virginia plantation in 1856. When slavery was abolished,
Washington had a chance to pursue the education he longed for. In spite of the
reign of the Ku Klux Klan (a terrorizing group of white men that used brutal,
violent force to govern the activities of African Americans), black codes
(restrictive laws that limited the freedom and rights of African Americans),
the culture of lynching African Americans, and having limited resources,
Washington was able to enter Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute at
sixteen years of age (Washington, 1995).
After graduating with honors in 1875, Washington started his career as a
teacher in Malden, West Virginia, and taught for two years. As the only
instructor for the only public colored school in Malden, Washington not only
taught his students the regular subjects of teaching, but also proper hygiene
(Washington, 1995). Washington soon started a night school for adults who
worked during the day, taught two Sunday schools, started a small reading room,
a debate society, and mentored young men and women to prepare them for college.
Washington described this time as the happiest period in his life because he
felt he was helping people achieve a better life (Washington, 1995).
While attending school in
Washington, D.C., Washington noticed that many of his classmates did not have
to work to pay for their education, but had their school expenses paid for by
someone else, and seemed to be less self-dependent (Washington, 1995). He also
noticed that when these students left school, they had mere book education, but
were not educated on the conditions they would meet once they went home
(Washington, 1995). It also bothered him that many colored people “depended on
the Government for every conceivable thing” and did not know how to create
positions for themselves. These were some of Washington’s early concerns about
the education colored people were receiving at the time.
Washington began his
“life-work” when he was offered a position to take charge of starting a normal
school for the colored people of Tuskegee, Alabama (Washington, 1995).
Washington opened the school in 1881 and it later became known as Tuskegee
Institute. Washington was determined to not only have the students build the
school themselves, but to teach them the beauty and dignity in labor and to
learn to love work for its own sake (Washington, 1995). Tuskegee students laid the foundation for
the school, erected the buildings, and even built the furnishings (Washington,
1995). Washington revolutionized adult education and forever changed it from
being about book education to “life” education.
Our group chose to
investigate Booker T. Washington because he pioneered programs based on the
histories, philosophies, aims, and theories of the adult education movement
(Denton, 1993). Washington took on the challenge of “helping to build, an
entire civilization from the first generation of freedmen” (Denton, 1993). In the midst of the most hostile
environments, Washington was able to leave an indelible mark on adult
education.
Malcolm S. Knowles was born
in 1913 in Montana. His family later moved to Florida where he graduated from
Palm Beach High School in 1930. He
attended Harvard University and graduated in 1934. He earned his Master’s at
the University of Chicago in 1949 and his Ph.D. in 1960. Knowles worked as the founding executive
secretary of the Adult Education Association, which later became the American
Association for Adult and Continuing Education. He also worked as the director
of Adult Education at the Boston YMCA, director of training for the National
Youth Administration of Massachusetts, and served as a professor at Boston
University, North Carolina State University, and University of Arkansas
(Malcolm Shepherd Knowles, 1998).
Knowles is known as the
“Father of Adult Education” and the “Archbishop of Andragogy” (Long &
Boshier, 1998). He lived during major events in the United States including the
Great Depression, World War II, and the Civil Rights Movement. He published
nineteen books and more than 200 articles on adult education. He is credited
with “altering the paradigm of adult education” (Long & Boshier, 1998).
Knowles believed that adults brought valuable experience to the classroom and
should be taught differently than children. He later refined his theory and
came to believe that both children and adults are natural self-directed
learners and that the unique characteristics of adult learners develop as they
mature (Henschke, 1997).
Our group chose to research
Malcolm Knowles because he was so instrumental in the development of adult
education. As mentioned by Henschke (1997), “To develop a clear understanding
of adult education, you must examine the history of those persons who
contributed to adult education.” In order to discuss adult education, Malcolm
Knowles must be included in the conversation. He played a major role in the
adult education movement for decades.
Perspectives:
Booker T. Washington valued
education starting at a young age. He traveled, alone, more than 500 miles from
his hometown of Malden, West Virginia to attend the school of Hampton. The
school of Hampton was opened to help educate newly freed slaves after the Civil
War. It was here Washington got his start on the educational trail. Washington
started at Hampton in fall of 1872 where he worked while attending school to
pay for his boarding. He was one of the youngest students at 16 years old. Many
students there were in their 40's. Washington saw the need for educating newly
freed blacks in the south and he believed education should be more than just
teaching someone to read and write (Thornbrough, 1969).
Upon graduating from Hampton,
Washington continued working in the education field. He was offered the
challenge of creating a black school in Tuskegee, Alabama. This area was in
economic turmoil and many blacks there were uneducated and unable to provide a
living for themselves or their families. Washington wanted to make this new
school part of the community so the community members felt like it was theirs
(Graham, 1961). Washington took out a personal loan to help build the school to
start the Tuskegee School which opened in 1881. Washington's goals for this
school were simple. He wanted to provide instruction to the masses and inspire
hope and courage for the people of the Tuskegee region (Thornbrough, 1969).
Washington had three basic
principles concerning education. 1 - Education must meet conditions that exist now,
2 - Education should provide students with enough skill to make a living, and 3
- Education must show that labor is dignified and beautiful (Thornbrough, 1969).
This third basic principle was a message to the Whites that the Black community
could provide hard workers equal to that of the White community (Bieze, 2012).
The purpose of the Tuskegee
school was to give Negros in the South a way to improve their economic
conditions. Washington saw adult education as a way for people to improve their
way of life and he worked with the community to do that. He offered the
Tuskegee Negro Conference and innovative extension programs to help community
members with farming and other agricultural type situations. Many blacks in the
south were not familiar with the day-to-day farming operations and these
community members attended Washington's programs to improve their livelihood
(Denton, 1993).
Malcolm Knowles perspectives on
adult education came from his experience as an educator. His work grew out of
his dissertation at the University of Chicago and stressed the development of a
coordinated adult education movement (Merriam, 2007). Knowles’ early thoughts
focused on student learning. He found students learn better when they assess
their own needs, define their own goals, are actively involved in setting
objectives, using their own experiences for other's learning, and organizing
learning experiences around their life tasks or problems (Knowles, 1989).
However, Knowles continued to
research the topic of adult education and found theories had changed. Education
had turned from learning to promotion. Adult students were less worried about
being actively involved in learning and were more worried about earning the
grade and promoting to the next class. Education was no longer motivated
intrinsically, but was extrinsic in terms of earning the passing grade or
earning the approval of the teacher/parents (Knowles, 1989).
The topic of mandatory
continuing education is often discussed in the area of adult education. Knowles
believes all adult education should be voluntary but understands why certain
professions aim to keep their practitioners up to date on current practices. By
making continuing education voluntary, more people would feel as if they are in
charge of their learning instead of being forced to learn.
Knowles also talks about the
principle of adult education in relation to institutions. Adult education
generally thrives out of a crisis as that is when needs are most clearly seen.
The adult education programs that survive the longest tend to have solid ties
to other institutions/programs. This linkage tends to promote survival of the
adult education institution/program.
Contributions:
Booker T. Washington
·
Started
the Tuskegee School in 1881 serving the area of Tuskegee, Alabama. This school
immediately was known for its' adult education programs and meeting the needs
of the community through the programs (Denton, 1993).
·
Used widespread
spoken and written word to link black and whites together on the issue of race
and education (Denton, 1993).
·
Appeared
as an activist within the Black community. He raised funds, secured loans and
jobs and used his name to assist Black individuals and causes (Bieze, 2012).
·
Purchased
the land (personally) and helped to build the Tuskegee School, with the help of
students (Washington, 1902).
Malcolm Knowles
·
Broadening
and deepening of our understanding of the nature of the adult education
movement (Knowles1989)
·
Development
and revolution of the Andragogical Model
- treating students like dignified, competent human beings
- providing a climate and environment more suitable to adults
and less like a traditional classroom setting
- offering classes based on expressed needs of students
- actively involve students in their own learning
- have students share their strengths in order to work
together and use each other as resources
·
Leader
in the progressive movement of adult education (Merriam)
·
Leader
in self-directed learning
Impact and
Implications:
As an educator and leader,
Booker T. Washington contributed much to the field of adult education. His
Tuskegee Institute in Alabama was a model institution of vocational learning,
and from there, he expanded his efforts into adult and extension education
(Frantz, 1997). Washington saw a need for education that went beyond the
classroom walls and met adults in their places of work and homes. He realized
that by taking information to adults, he could also teach them the value of
learning and education (Gyant, 1988). His understanding of the need for
education that reached out to a working, adult population helped shape a large
portion of today’s adult education. The strategies Booker T. Washington used to
educate a new group of individuals had a tremendous impact on the way educators
today approach extension and vocational education.
Malcolm
Knowles was one of the most noted leaders in the field of adult education
throughout the mid-late 1900s, and his contributions to the field must be
acknowledged (Rachal, 2014). His theories on the adult learner, informal adult
education, and andragogy were groundbreaking. Knowles’ idea of andragogy
essentially explained that he believed adults, unlike children, should be aided
in learning, not taught (Knowles, 1970). This novel approach and way of
thinking sparked the creation of new courses and programs designed to put the
learner more at the center of education. Malcolm Knowles contributed much to
the field of adult education, and his theories and methods helped advance the
practices of adult educators.
Washington’s
commitment to expanding his student population to include working adults has
become a hallmark characteristic of adult education. His efforts to teach the
value of education and to take relevant information to working adults serve as
examples to adult educators today. Vocational schools and apprentice programs
where the student learns a specific set of skills are examples of Washington’s
educational model. Malcolm Knowles’ pioneer thinking and approaches to helping
adults learn have allowed adult education to grow. Courses that are student
driven and that put the learner at the center of the curriculum are examples of
how his contributions to this field have influenced adult education today.
Conclusion:
The work of both Booker T.
Washington and Malcolm Knowles had a significant impact on the field of adult
education. Washington’s Tuskegee Institute served as a leader for vocational,
adult education (Frantz, 1997), an example that stands to this day. Knowles’
theory on adult learning and andragogy, though much debated, provided a new
perspective on adult education (Knowles, 1970). His ideas sparked new research
in adult education theories and strategies, and his numerous publications and
scholarly works are referenced to this day (Rachal, 2014). As adult education
continues to expand and evolve, educators should continue to gain a better
understanding of the field’s history, including the histories of individuals
like Washington and Knowles. Their efforts and contributions have helped direct
adult education to its current position.
Table 1. Summary of Leading Adult Educators
|
Booker T. Washington
|
Malcolm Knowles
|
Time Period
|
1876 – 1915
|
1946 - 1970
|
Background
|
-Born into slavery
-Worked during the Reconstruction period of the United States
-Revolutionized adult education for African Americans
-Taught students the value and importance of labor and how to
create their own positions
-Believed in addressing real-life problems instead of filling
students with book education
|
-Born during the Great Depression
-Contributed to the field of adult education during the Civil
Rights Movement
-Changed the paradigm of adult education
-Popularized the term “Andragogy” in America
-Believed that adults brought their experience into the
classroom
-Refined his theory to include the maturity of children into
adults.
|
Profile
|
-Entered college at sixteen years old
-Graduated from Hampton Institute with Honors
-Established
Tuskegee Institute as well as several night schools
|
-Attended Harvard University and University of Chicago
-Founding executive at the Adult Education Association which
became the American Associate for Adult and Continuing Education
-Taught at Boston University, North Carolina State University,
and University of Arkansas
-Held
positions as director of Adult Education at the Boston YMCA and director of
training for the National Youth Administration of Massachusetts
|
Perspectives
|
-Meet the needs of now
-Have community feel a part of the education
|
-Education is extrinsically motivated
-Adult education programs survive longer when tied to
another institution
|
Contributions
|
-Developed the Tuskegee School
-Used spoken and written word to link blacks and whites
together on issues of race and education
|
-Andragogical Model
-Leader in progressive movement and self-directed learning
|
Impact
|
-Examples of vocational education
-Pioneer of extension education
-Championed adult education
|
-Solidifying theory of andragogy
-Many publications and scholarly contributions
-Learner-centered curriculum
|
Implications
|
-Learn how to take education to those who need it
-Make education mean something to learners
|
-Adult educators should facilitate learning rather than teach
material
-Adult learners should form center of curriculum
|
References:
Bieze,
M. & Gasman, M. (2012). Booker T.
Washington: Rediscovered. The Johns Hopkins
University Press. Baltimore.
Denton, V. L. (1993). Booker T. Washington and the adult education movement. Gainesville,
FL:
University
Press of Florida.
Frantz, N. (1997). The
contributions of Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois in the development of
vocational education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 34(4), 87-91.
Graham,
Shirley. (1961). Booker T. Washington:
Educator of Hand, Head, and Heart. Julian
Messner, Inc. New York.
Gyant, L. (1988).
Contributors to adult education: Booker T. Washington, George Washington
Carver, Alain L. Locke, and Ambrose Caliver. Journal of Black Studies, 19(1),
97-110.
Henschke, J. (1997). In memoriam: Malcolm S.
Knowles. Adult Learning, 9(2),
2
Long, H. B., & Boshier, R. (1998). A tribute to
Malcolm S. Knowles. Adult Education
Quarterly, 48(2), 63.
Knowles,
Malcolm S. (1989). The Making of an Adult
Educator. Jossey-Bass Publishers. San
Francisco.
Knowles, Malcolm S.
(1970). The Modern Practice of Adult Education (Vol. 41). New
York: New York Association Press.
Knowles, Malcolm S. (1998). Training & Development, 52(2), 11.
Merriam,
S. & Brockett, R. (2007). The
Profession and Practice of Adult Education: An
Introduction. Jossey-Bass.
Rachal, J. R. (2014). Book
Review: Malcolm Shepherd Knowles: A History of His Thought. Adult
Education Quarterly, 64(1), 80-84.
Thornbrough,
Emma L. (1969). Booker T. Washington.
Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs.
Washington,
Booker T. "The Tuskegee Normal and
Industrial Institute," The World To-day,
August 1902, 1727-31.
Washington, Booker T. (1995). Up from slavery. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc.
